Attention can be invested in innumerable ways, ways that can make life either rich or miserable.
the phenomenology of enjoyment has eight major components. When people reflect on how it feels when their experience is most positive, they mention at least one, and often all, of the following. First, the experience usually occurs when we confront tasks we have a chance of completing. Second, we must be able to concentrate on what we are doing. Third and fourth, the concentration is usually possible because the task undertaken has clear goals and provides immediate feedback. Fifth, one acts with a deep but effortless involvement that removes from awareness the worries and frustrations of everyday life. Sixth, enjoyable experiences allow people to exercise a sense of control over their actions. Seventh, concern for the self disappears, yet paradoxically the sense of self emerges stronger after the flow experience is over. Finally, the sense of the duration of time is altered; hours pass by in minutes, and minutes can stretch out to seem like hours. The combination of all these elements causes a sense of deep enjoyment that is so rewarding people feel that expending a great deal of energy is worthwhile simply to be able to feel it.
In science it often happens that scientists say, 'You know that's a really good argument; my position is mistaken,' and then they actually change their minds and you never hear that old view from them again. They really do it. It doesn't happen as often as it should, because scientists are human and change is sometimes painful. But it happens every day. I cannot recall the last time something like that happened in politics or religion. -- Carl Sagan, 1987 CSICOP keynote address
_Caesium hydroxide_, Cs(OH)_2, obtained by the decomposition of the sulphate with baryta water, is a greyish-white deliquescent solid, which melts at a red heat and absorbs carbon dioxide rapidly. It readily dissolves in water, with evolution of much heat. _Caesium chloride_, CsCl, is obtained by the direct action of chlorine on caesium, or by solution of the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid. It forms small cubes which melt at a red heat and volatilize readily. It deliquesces in moist air. Many double chlorides are known, and may be prepared by mixing solutions of the two components in the requisite proportions. The _bromide_, CsBr, and _iodide_, CsI, resemble the corresponding potassium salts. Many trihaloid salts of caesium are also known, such as CsBr_3, CsClBr_2, CsI_3, CsBrI_2, CsBr_2I, &c. (H.L. Wells and S.L. Penfield, _Zeit. fur anorg. Chem._, 1892, i, p. 85). _Caesium sulphate_, Cs_2SO_4, may be prepared by dissolving the hydroxide or carbonate in sulphuric acid. It crystallizes in short hard prisms, which are readily soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol. It combines with many metallic sulphates (silver, zinc, cobalt, nickel, &c.) to form double sulphates of the type Cs_2SO_4·RSO_4·6H_2O. It also forms a caesium-alum Cs_2SO_4·Al_2(SO_4)_3·24H_2O. _Caesium nitrate_, CsNO_3, is obtained by dissolving the carbonate in nitric acid, and crystallizes in glittering prisms, which melt readily, and on heating evolve oxygen and leave a residue of caesium nitrite. The carbonate, Cs_2CO_3, silicofluoride, Cs_2SiF_6, borate, Cs_2O·3B_2O_3, and the sulphides Cs_2S·4H_2O, Cs_2S_2·H_2O, Cs_2S_3·H_2O, Cs_2S_4 and Cs_2S_6·H_2O, are also known. Entry: CAESIUM
KÁRMÁN, JÓZSEF (1769-1795), Hungarian author, was born at Losoncz on the 14th of March 1769, the son of a Calvinist pastor. He was educated at Losoncz and Pest, whence he migrated to Vienna. There he made the acquaintance of the beautiful and eccentric Countess Markovics, who was for a time his mistress, but she was not, as has often been supposed, the heroine of his famous novel _Fanni Hagyománai_ (Fanny's testament). Subsequently he settled in Pest as a lawyer. His sensibility, social charm, liberal ideas (he was one of the earliest of the Magyar freemasons) and personal beauty, opened the doors of the best houses to him. He was generally known as the Pest Alcibiades, and was especially at home in the salons of the Protestant magnates. In 1792, together with Count Ráday, he founded the first theatrical society at Buda. He maintained that Pest, not Pressburg, should be the literary centre of Hungary, and in 1794 founded the first Hungarian quarterly, _Urania_, but it met with little support and ceased to exist in 1795, after three volumes had appeared. Kármán, who had long been suffering from an incurable disease, died in the same year. The most important contribution to _Urania_ was his sentimental novel, _Fanni Hagyománai_, much in the style of _La nouvelle Héloïse_ and _Werther_, the most exquisite product of Hungarian prose in the 18th century and one of the finest psychological romances in the literature. Kármán also wrote two satires and fragments of an historical novel, while his literary programme is set forth in his dissertation _Anemzet csinosodása_. Entry: KÁRMÁN
Among Hungarian novels we may distinguish four dominant _genres_ or tendencies. The first is represented almost exclusively by Maurus Jókai (q.v.). To the school so perfectly represented by Jókai belong Árpád Kupa (_A napszámosok_, "The Labourers"; _Képselt királyok_, "Imaginary Kings"); Robert Tábori (_Nagy játék_, "Great Game"; _A negyvenéves férfiu_, "The Man at Forty"); and Julius Werner (_Kendi Imre házassága_, "The Wedding of Emericus Kendi"; _Olga; Megvirrad még valaha_, "Dawn will come in the End"). The second class of Hungarian modern novelists is led by the well-known Koloman Mikszáth, a poet endowed with originality, a charming _naïveté_, and a freshness of observation from life. A close observer of the multifarious low life of Hungary, Mikszáth has, in his short stories, given a delightful yet instructive picture of all the minor varied phases of the peasant life of the Slavs, the _Palócok_, the Saxons, the town artisan. Amongst his numerous works may be mentioned _A jó palóczok_ ("The Good Palóczok," Slav peasants); _Egy választás Magyarországon_ ("An Election in Hungary"); _Pipacsok a búzában_ ("Wild Poppies in the Wheatfield"); _A tekintetes vármegye_ ("The Worshipful County"); _Ne okoskodj Pista_ ("Don't reason, Pista"); _Szent Peter esernyöje_ ("St Peter's Umbrella," translated from the original into English by Miss B. W. Worswick), &c. Mikszáth has had considerable influence upon other writers. Such are Victor Rákosi (_Sipulus tárcái_, "The Essays of Sipulus"; _Rejtett fészkek_, "Hidden Nests"); Stephen Móra (_Atyánkfiai_, "Our Compatriots"); Alexius Benedek, the author of numerous distinctly sympathetic and truly Magyar tales, fables and novels, one of the most gifted and deserving literary workers of modern Hungary (_Huszár Anna_, "Anna Huszar"; _Egy szalmaözvegy levelei_, "Letters of a grass widow"; _A sziv könyve_, "The Book of the Heart"; _Katalin_, "Catherine"; _Csendes órák_, "Quiet Hours"; _Testamentum és hat levél_, "Last Will and Six Letters," translated into German by Dr W. Schönwald, &c.); Géza Gárdonyi (several novels containing the adventures, observations, &c., of Mr Gabriel Göre; _A kékszemü Davidkáné_, "Blue-eyed Mrs Dávidka"; _A Kátsa_, scenes from gipsy life); Charles Murai (_Vig történetek_, "Jolly Stories"; _Bandi_, a collection of short tales); Stephen Bársony (_Csend_, "Silence"; _A Kaméleon-leány_, "The Chamaeleon Girl, and other Stories"; _Erdön-mezön_, "In Wood and Field"). The third class of Magyar novelists comprises those cosmopolitan writers who take their method of work, their inspiration and even many of their subjects from foreign authors, chiefly French, German, Russian and also Norwegian. A people with an intense national sentiment, such as the Hungarians, do not as a rule incline towards permanent admiration of foreign-born or imported literary styles; and accordingly the work of this class of novelists has frequently met with very severe criticism on the part of various Magyar critics. Yet it can scarcely be denied that several of the "foreign" novelists have contributed a wholesome, if not quite Magyar, element of form or thought to literary narrative style in Hungary. Probably the foremost among them is Sigismund Justh, who died prematurely in the midst of his painful attempt at reconciling French "realistic" modes of thought with what he conceived to be Magyar simplicity (_A puszta könyve_, "The Book of the _Puszta_," prairie of Hungary; _A Pénz legendája_, "The Legend of Money"; _Gányo Julcsa_, "Juliet Gányó"; _Fuimus_). Other novelists belonging to this school are: Desiderius Malonyai (_Az utolsó_, "The Last"; _Judith könyve_, "The Book of Judith"; _Tanulmányfejek_, "Typical Heads"); Julius Pekár (_Dodo föhadnagy problémái_, "Lieutenant Dodo's Problems"; _Az aranykesztyüs kisasszony_, "The Maid with the Golden Gloves"; _A szoborszép asszony_, "The Lady as Beautiful as a Statue"; _Az esztendo legendája_, "The Legend of the Year"); Thomas Kobor (_Aszfalt_, "Asphalt"; _O akarta_, "He Wanted It"; _A csillagok felé_, "Towards the Stars"); Stephen Szomaházy (_Huszonnégy óra_, "Twenty-four Hours"; _A Clairette Keringö_, "The Clairette Valse"; _Páratlan szerdák_, "Incomparable Wednesdays"; _Nyári felhök_, "Clouds of Summer"); Zoltán Thury (_Ullrich föhadnagy és egyéb történetek_, "Lieutenant Ullrich and other Tales"; _Urak és parasztok_, "Gentlemen and Peasants"); also Desiderius Szomory, Ödon Gerö, Árpád Abonyi, Koloman Szántó, Edward Sas, Julius Vértesi, Tibor Dénes, Ákos Pintér, the Misses Janka and Stéphanie Wohl, Mrs Sigismund Gyarmathy and others. In the fourth class may be grouped such of the latest Hungarian novelists as have tried, and on the whole succeeded, in clothing their ideas and characters in a style peculiar to themselves. Besides Stephen Petelei (_Jetti_, a name--"Henrietta"--_Felhök_, "Clouds") and Zoltán Ambrus (_Pókháló Kisasszony_, "Miss Cobweb"; _Gyanu_, "Suspicion") must be mentioned especially Francis Herczeg, who has published a number of very interesting studies of Hungarian social life (_Simon Zsuzsa_, "Susanna Simon"; _Fenn és lenn_, "Above and Below"; _Egy leány története_, "The History of a Girl"; _Idegenek között_, "Amongst Strangers"); Alexander Bródy, who brings a delicate yet resolute analysis to unfold the mysterious and fascinating inner life of persons suffering from overwrought nerves or overstrung mind (_A kétlelkü asszony_, "The Double-Souled Lady"; _Don Quixote kisasszony_, "Miss Don Quixote"; _Faust orvos_, "Faust the Physician"; _Tündér Ilona, Rejtelmek_, "Mysteries"; _Az ezüst kecske_, "The Silver Goat"); and Edward Kabos, whose sombre and powerful genius has already produced works, not popular by any means, but full of great promise. In him we may trace the influence of Nietzsche's philosophy (_Koldusok_, "Beggars"; _Vándorok_, "Wanderers"). To this list we must add the short but incomparable _feuilletons_ (_tárczalevelek_) of Dr Adolf Ágai (writing under the _nom de plume_ of Porzó), whose influence on the formation of modern Hungarian literary prose is hardly less important than the unique _esprit_ and charm of his writings. Entry: IV
CROCOITE CROWE, EYRE EVANS CROCUS CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROESUS CROW INDIANS CROFT, SIR HERBERT CROWLAND CROFT, SIR JAMES CROWLEY, ROBERT CROFT, WILLIAM CROWN (coin) CROFTER CROWN and CORONET CROKER, JOHN WILSON CROWN DEBT CROKER, RICHARD CROWNE, JOHN CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON CROWN LAND CROLL, JAMES CROWN POINT CROLY, GEORGE CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI CROMAGNON RACE CROYDON CROMARTY, GEORGE MACKENZIE CROZAT, PIERRE CROMARTY CROZET ISLANDS CROMARTY FIRTH CROZIER, WILLIAM CROME, JOHN CROZIER CROMER, EVELYN BARING CRUCIAL CROMER CRUCIFERAE CROMORNE CRUDEN, ALEXANDER CROMPTON, SAMUEL CRUDEN CROMPTON CRUELTY CROMWELL, HENRY CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE CROMWELL, OLIVER CRUNDEN, JOHN CROMWELL, RICHARD CRUSADES CROMWELL, THOMAS CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB CRONJE, PIET ARNOLDUS CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM CRUSTACEA CROOKSTON CRUSTUMERIUM CROP CRUVEILHIER, JEAN CROPSEY, JASPER FRANCIS CRUZ E SILVA, ANTONIO DINIZ DA CROQUET CRYOLITE CRORE CRYPT CROSBY, HOWARD CRYPTEIA CROSS, and CRUCIFIXION CRYPTOBRANCHUS CROSSBILL CRYPTOGRAPHY CROSSEN CRYPTOMERIA CROSSING CRYPTO-PORTICUS CROSSKEY, HENRY WILLIAM CRYSTAL-GAZING CROSS RIVER CRYSTALLITE CROSS-ROADS, BURIAL AT CRYSTALLIZATION CROSS SPRINGER CRYSTALLOGRAPHY CROTCH, WILLIAM CRYSTAL PALACE, THE CROTCHET CSENGERY, ANTON CROTONA CSIKY, GREGOR CROTONIC ACID CSOKONAI, MIHALY VITEZ CROTON OIL CSOMA DE KÖRÖS, ALEXANDER CROUP CTENOPHORA CROUSAZ, JEAN PIERRE DE CTESIAS CROW CTESIPHON CROWBERRY CUBA CROWD Entry: CROCOITE
Meanwhile dramatic literature found many champions, of whom the most energetic was Edward Szigligeti, _proprie_ Joseph Szathmáry, who enriched the Hungarian stage with more than a hundred pieces. Of these the most popular are comedies and serio-comic national dramas. A less prolific but more classical writer appeared in Charles Obernyik, whose _George Brankovics_ is, next to Katona's _Bánk Bán_, one of the best historical tragedies in the language. Several of the already mentioned lyric and epic poets were occasional writers also for the drama. To these we may add the gifted but unfortunate Sigismund Czakó, Lewis Dobsa, Joseph Szigeti, Ignatius Nagy, Joseph Szenvey (a translator from Schiller), Joseph Gaal, Charles Hugo, Lawrence Tóth (the Magyarizer of the _School for Scandal_), Emeric Vahot, Alois Degré (equally famous as a novelist), Stephen Toldy and Lewis Dóczi, author of the popular prize drama _Csók_ (The Kiss). _Az ember tragoediája_ (The Tragedy of Man), by Emeric Madách (1861), is a dramatic poem of a philosophical and contemplative character, and is not intended for the stage. Among successful dramatic pieces may be mentioned the _Falu rossza_ (Village Scamp) of Edward Tóth (1875), which represents the life of the Hungarian peasantry, and shows both poetic sentiment and dramatic skill; _A szerelem harcza_ (Combat of Love), by Count Géza Zichy; _Iskáriot_ (1876) and the prize tragedy _Tamora_ (1879), by Anthony Várady; _Jánus_ (1877), by Gregory Csiky; and the dramatized romance _Szép Mikhal_ (Handsome Michal), by Maurus Jókai (1877). The principal merit of this author's drama _Milton_ (1876) consists in its brilliance of language. The _Szerelem iskolája_ (School of Love), by Eugene Rákosy, although in some parts exquisitely worded, did not meet with the applause accorded to his _Ripacsos Pista Dolmánya_ (1874). The _Gróf Dormándi Kálmán_ (Count Coloman Dormándi) of Béla Bercsényi (1877) is a social tragedy of the French school. Among the most recent writers of comedy we single out Árpád Berczik for his A _házasitók_ (The Matchmakers); Ignatius Súlyovsky for his _Nöi diplomatia_ (Female Diplomacy); and the above-mentioned Gregory Csiky for his _Ellenállhatatlan_ (The Irresistible), produced on the stage in 1878. As popular plays the _Sárga csikó_ (Bay Foal) and _A piros bugyelláris_ (The Red Purse), by Francis Csepreghy, have their own special merit, and were often represented in 1878 and 1879 at Budapest and elsewhere. Entry: IV
The first Hungarian grammar known is the _Grammatica Hungaro-Latina_ of John Erdösi _alias_ Sylvester Pannonius, printed at Sárvár-Ujsziget in 1539. Others are the posthumous treatises of Nicholas Révai (Pest, 1809); the _Magyar nyelvmester_ of Samuel Gyarmathi, published at Klausenburg in 1794; and grammars by J. Farkas (9th ed., Vienna, 1816), Mailáth (2nd ed., Pest, 1832), Kis (Vienna, 1834), Márton (8th ed., Vienna, 1836), Maurice Ballagi or (in German) Bloch (5th ed., Pest, 1869), Töpler (Pest, 1854), Riedl (Vienna, 1858), Schuster (Pest, 1866), Charles Ballagi (Pest, 1868), Reméle (Pest and Vienna, 1869), Roder (Budapest, 1875), Führer (Budapest, 1878), Ney (20th ed., Budapest, 1879), C. E. de Ujfalvy (Paris, 1876), S. Wékey (London, 1852), J. Csink (London, 1853), Ballantik (Budapest, 1881); Singer (London, 1882). Entry: III
The melancholy state of the country consequent upon the persecutions of Rudolph I., Ferdinand II. and Leopold I., as also the continual encroachment of Germanizing influences under the Habsburgs, were unfavourable to the development of the national literature during the next literary period, dating from the Peace of Vienna (1606) to that of Szatmár (1711). A few names were, however, distinguished in theology, philology and poetry. In 1626 a Hungarian version of the Vulgate was published at Vienna by the Jesuit George Káldi,[72] and another complete translation of the Scriptures, the so-called _Komáromi Biblia_ (Komorn Bible) was made in 1685 by the Protestant George Csipkés, though it was not published till 1717 at Leiden, twenty-nine years after his death.[73] On behalf of the Catholics the Jesuit Peter Pázmán, eventually primate, Nicholas Eszterházy, Sámbár, Balásfi and others were the authors of various works of a polemical nature. Especially famous was the _Hodaegus, kalauz_ of Pázmán, which first appeared at Pozsony (Pressburg) in 1613. Among the Protestants who exerted themselves in theological and controversial writings were Németi, Alvinczy, Alexander Felvinczy, Mártonfalvi and Melotai, who was attached to the court of Bethlen Gábor. Telkibányai wrote on "English Puritanism" (1654). The Calvinist Albert Molnár, already mentioned, was more remarkable for his philological than for his theological labours. Párispápai compiled an Hungarian-Latin Dictionary, _Dictionarium magyar és deák nyelven_ (Löcse, 1708), and Apáczai-Csere, a _Magyar Encyclopaedia_ (Utrecht, 1653). John Szalárdi, Paul Lisznyai, Gregory Pethö, John Kemény and Benjamin Szilágyi, which last, however, wrote in Latin, were the authors of various historical works. In polite literature the heroic poem _Zrinyiász_ (1651), descriptive of the fall of Sziget, by Nicholas Zrinyi, grandson of the defender of that fortress, marks a new era in Hungarian poetry. Of a far inferior character was the monotonous _Mohácsi veszedelem_ (Disaster of Mohács), in 13 cantos, produced two years afterwards at Vienna by Baron Liszti. The lyric and epic poems of Stephen Gyöngyösi, who sang the deeds of Maria Széchy, the heroine of Murány, _Murányi Venus_ (Kassa, 1664), are samples rather of a general improvement in the style than of the purity of the language. As a didactic and elegiac poet Stephen Kohári is much esteemed. More fluent but not less gloomy are the sacred lyrics of Nyéki-Veres first published in 1636 under the Latin title of _Tintinnabulum Tripudiantium_. The songs and proverbs of Peter Beniczky, who lived in the early part o£ the 17th century, are not without merit, and have been several times reprinted. From the appearance of the first extant printed Magyar work[74] at Cracow in 1531 to the end of the period just treated, more than 1800 publications in the native language are known.[75] Entry: IV
Juristic literature has been stimulated by the activity in positive legislation. On 1st January 1900 a new criminal code, thoroughly modern in spirit, was put in force; and in 1901 a Civil Code Bill, to replace the old Hungarian customary system, was introduced. Among the newer writers on common and commercial law may be mentioned Wenczal, Zlinsky, Zögöd, Gustave Schwarz, Alexander Plósz, Francis Nagy and Neumann; on constitutional law, Korbuly, Boncz, Stephen Kiss, Ernest Nagy, Kmety, Arthur Balogh, Ferdinandy, Béla Grünwald, Julius Andrássy and Emeric Hajnik; on administration, George Fésüs, Kmety and Csiky; on finance, Mariska, Exner and László. Among the later writers on statistics, moreover, have been Konek, Keleti, Láng, Földes, Jekelfalussy, Vorgha, Körösy, Ráth and Vízaknai. Entry: IV
Dramatic literature, liberally supported by the king and the government, and aided by magnificent theatres in the capital and also in the provinces (the finest provincial theatre is in Kolozsvár, in Transylvania), has developed remarkably. The Hungarians have the genuine dramatic gift in abundance; they have, moreover, actors and actresses of the first rank. In the modern drama three great and clearly differentiated groups may be distinguished. First the neo-romantic group, whose chief representatives are Eugen Rákosi, Louis Dóczi (b. 1845), who, in addition to _Csók_ ("The Kiss"), has written _Utolsó szerelem_ ("Last Love"), _Széchy Mária_ ("Maria Széchy"), _Vegyes Párok_ ("Mixed Couples"). In these and other dramatic writings, more remarkable perhaps for poetic than for stage effects, Dóczi still maintains his brilliancy of diction and the delicacy of his poetic touch. To the same school belong Louis Bartók, Anton Váradi and Alexander Somló. The next group of Hungarian dramatists is dominated by the master spirit of Gregor Csiky (q.v.). Among Csiky's most promising disciples is Francis Herczeg (already mentioned as a novelist), author of the successful society comedy, _A Gyurkovics leányok_ ("The Misses Gyurkovics"), _Három testör_ ("Three Guardsmen"), _Honty háza_ ("The House of Honty"). Árpád Berczik's _Nézd meg az anyját_ ("Look at her Mother"), _A protekczió_ ("Patronizing"), also followed on the lines of Csiky. The third group of dramatic writers take their subjects, surroundings and diction from the folk-life of the villages (_népszínmü_, "folk-drama"). The greatest of these dramatists has so far been Edward Tóth (_Toloncz_, "The Ousted Pauper"). Amongst his numerous followers, who have, however, sometimes vulgarized their figures and plots, may be mentioned Tihamér Almási (_Milimári, A Miniszterelnök bálja_, "The Ball of the Premier") and Alexander Somló. Entry: IV