A list of lives or studies on Lamennais would fill several columns. The following may be mentioned. A Blaize, _Essai biographique sur M. de Lamennais_ (1858); E. D. Forgues, _Notes et souvenirs_ (1859); F. Brunetière, _Nouveaux essais sur la littérature contemporaine_ (1893); E. Faguet, _Politiques et moralistes_, ii. (1898); P. Janet, _La Philosophie de Lamennais_ (1890); P. Mercier, S.J., _Lamennais d'après sa correspondance et les travaux les plus récents_ (1893); A. Mollien et F. Duine, _Lamennais, sa vie et ses idées_; _Pages choisies_ (Lyons, 1898); The Hon. W. Gibson, _The Abbé de Lammenais and the Liberal Catholic Movement in France_ (London, 1896); E. Renan _Essais de morale et de critique_ (1857); E. Schérer, _Mélanges de critique religieuse_ (1859); G. E. Spuller, _Lamennais, étude d'histoire et de politique religieuse_ (1892); Mgr. Ricard, _L'école menaisienne_ (1882), and Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits contemporains_, tome i. (1832), and _Nouveaux Lundis_, tome i. p. 22; tome xi. p. 347. Entry: A
GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGÈNE (1822-1905), French sculptor, was born at Montbard on the 4th of July 1822, and studied under Cavelier, Millet, and Barrias, at the École des Beaux-Arts, which he entered in 1841, and where he gained the _prix de Rome_ in 1845 with "Theseus finding on a rock his Father's Sword." He became director of the École des Beaux-Arts in 1864, and director-general of Fine Arts from 1878 to 1879, when the office was suppressed. Many of his works have been bought for public galleries, and his monuments are to be found in the public squares of the chief cities of France. At Rheims there is his bronze statue of "Colbert," at Dijon his "Rameau" monument. The Luxembourg Museum has his "Anacreon" (1852), "Les Gracques" (1853), "Faucheur" (1855), and the marble bust of "Mgr Darboy"; the Versailles Museum the portrait of "Thiers"; the Sorbonne Library the marble bust of "Victor le Clerc, doyen de la faculté des lettres." Other works of his are at Trinity Church, St Germain l'Auxerrois, and the church of St Clotilde, Paris. Guillaume was a prolific writer, principally on sculpture and architecture of the Classic period and of the Italian Renaissance. He was elected member of the Académie Française in 1862, and in 1891 was sent to Rome as director of the Académie de France in that city. He was also elected an honorary member of the Royal Academy, London, 1869, on the institution of that class. Entry: GUILLAUME
The definition once proclaimed, controversies rapidly ceased; the bishops who were among the minority one after the other formulated their loyal adhesion to the Catholic dogma. The last to do so in Germany was Hefele, who published the decrees of the 10th of April 1871, thus breaking a long friendship with Döllinger; in Austria, where the government had thought good to revive for the occasion the royal _placet_, Mgr Haynald and Mgr Strossmayer delayed the publication, the former till the 15th of September 1871, the latter till the 26th of December 1872. In France the adhesion was rapid, and the publication was only delayed by some bishops in consequence of the disastrous war with Prussia. Though no bishops abandoned it, a few priests, such as Father Hyacinthe Loyson, and a few scholars at the German universities refused their adhesion. The most distinguished among the latter was Döllinger, who resisted all the advances of Mgr Scherr, archbishop of Munich, was excommunicated on the 17th of April 1871, and died unreconciled, though without joining any separate group. After him must be mentioned Friedrich of Munich, several professors of Bonn, and Reinkens of Breslau, who was the first bishop of the "Old Catholics." These professors formed the "Committee of Bonn," which organized the new Church. It was recognized and protected first in Bavaria, thanks to the minister Freiherr Johann von Lutz, then in Saxony, Baden, Württemberg, Prussia, where it was the pretext for, if not the cause of, the Kulturkampf, and finally in Switzerland, especially at Geneva. Entry: INFALLIBILITY
This drastic act of anti-clerical policy, which was a total repudiation by parliament of the principle of liberty of education, should have warned the authorities of the Church of the relentless attitude of the government. The most superficial observation ought to have shown them that the indifference of the nation would permit the prime minister to go to any length, and common prudence should have prevented them from affording him any pretext for more damaging measures. The President of the Republic accepted an invitation to return the visit of the king of Italy. When it was submitted to the Chamber on March 25th, 1904, a reactionary deputy moved the rejection of the vote for the expenses of the journey on the ground that the chief of the French executive ought not to visit the representative of the dynasty which had plundered the papacy. The amendment was rejected by a majority of 502 votes to 12, which showed that at a time of bitter controversy on ecclesiastical questions French opinion was unanimous in approving the visit of the president of the Republic to Rome as the guest of the king of Italy. Nothing could be more gratifying to the entire French nation, both on racial and on traditional grounds, than such a testimony of a complete revival of friendship with Italy, of late years obscured by the Triple Alliance. Yet the Holy See saw fit to advance pretensions inevitably certain to serve the ends of the extreme anti-clericals, whose most intolerant acts at that moment, such as the removal of the crucifixes from the law-courts, were followed by new electoral successes. Thus the reactionary majority on the Paris municipal council was displaced by the Radical-Socialists on the 1st of May, the day that M. Loubet returned from his visit to Rome. On the 16th of May M. Jaurès' Socialist organ, _L'Humanité_, published the text of a protest, addressed by the pope to the powers having diplomatic relations with the Vatican, against the visit of the president of the Republic to the King of Italy. This document, dated the 28th of April, was offensive in tone both to France and to Italy. It intimated that while Catholic sovereigns refrained from visiting the person who, contrary to right, exercised civil sovereignty in Rome, that "duty" was even more "imperious" for the ruler of France by reason of the "privileges" enjoyed by that country from the Concordat; that the journey of M. Loubet to "pay homage" within the pontifical see to that person was an insult to the sovereign pontiff; and that only for reasons of special gravity was the nuncio permitted to remain in Paris. The publication of this document caused some joy among the extreme clericals, but this was nothing to the exultation of the extreme anti-clericals, who saw that the prudent diplomacy of Leo XIII., which had risen superior to many a provocation of the French government, was succeeded by a papal policy which would facilitate their designs in a manner unhoped for. Moderate men were dismayed, seeing that the Concordat was now in instant danger; but the majority of the French nation remained entirely indifferent to its fate. Within a week France took the initiative by recalling the ambassador to the Vatican, M. Nisard, leaving a third-secretary in charge. In the debate in the Chamber upon the incident, the foreign minister, M. Delcassé, said that the ambassador was recalled, not because the Vatican had protested against the visit of the president to the king of Italy, but because it had communicated this protest, in terms offensive to France, to foreign powers. The Chamber on the 27th of May approved the recall of the ambassador by the large majority of 420 to 90. By a much smaller majority it rejected a Socialist motion that the Nuncio should be given his passports. The action of the Holy See was not actually an infringement of the Concordat; so the government, satisfied with the effect produced on public opinion, which was now quite prepared for a rupture with the Vatican, was willing to wait for a new pretext, which was not long in coming. Two bishops, Mgr. Geay of Laval and Mgr. Le Nordez of Dijon, were on bad terms with the clerical reactionaries in their dioceses. The friends of the prelates, including some of their episcopal brethren, thought that their chief offence was their loyalty to the Republic, and it was an unfortunate coincidence that these bishops, subjected to proceedings which had been unknown under the long pontificate of Leo XIII., should have been two who had incurred the animosity of anti-republicans. Their enemies accused Mgr. Geay of immorality and Mgr. Le Nordez of being in league with the freemasons. The bishop of Laval was summoned by the Holy Office, without any communication with the French government, to resign his see, and he submitted the citation forthwith to the minister of public worship. The French chargé d'affaires at the Vatican was instructed to protest against this grave infringement of an article of the Concordat, and, soon after, against another violation of the Concordat committed by the Nuncio, who had written to the bishop of Dijon ordering him to suspend his ordinations, the Nuncio being limited, like all other ambassadors, to communicating the instructions of his government through the intermediary of the minister for foreign affairs. The Vatican declined to give any satisfaction to the French government and summoned the two bishops to Rome under pain of suspension. So the French chargé d'affaires was directed to leave Rome, after having informed the Holy See that the government of the Republic considered that the mission of the apostolic Nuncio in Paris was terminated. Thus came to an end on the 30th of July 1904 the diplomatic relations which under the Concordat had subsisted between France and the Vatican for more than a hundred years. Entry: M
Belgian literary activity extends also to historical research. Baron Kervyn de Lettenhove (1817-1891) wrote a _Histoire de Flandre_ (7 vols., 1847-1855), and a number of monographs on separate points in Flemish and English history. Though an accurate historian, he allowed himself lo be prejudiced by his extreme Catholic views. He was a vehement defender of Mary Stuart. Louis Gachard (1800-1885) wrote many valuable works on 16th century history; Mgr. Namèche (1810-1893) completed the 29th volume of his _Cours d'histoire nationale_ before his death; Charles Piot (b. 1812) edited the correspondence of Cardinal de Granvelle; Alphonse Wauters (1818-1898), archivist of Brussels, published many archaeological works; and Charles Rahlenbeck (1823-1903) wrote enthusiastically of the history of Protestantism in Belgium. One of the most masterly writers of French in Belgium was the economist Émile de Laveleye (q.v.). In aesthetics should be noted the historian of music, François Joseph Fétis (1784-1871); F.A. Gevaert (1828-1908), author of _Histoire et théorie de la musique d'antiquité_ (2 vols., 1875-1881); and Victor Mahillon (b. 1841) for his work in acoustics and his descriptive catalogue (1893-1900) of the museum of musical instruments belonging to the Brussels conservatoire. In psychology Joseph Delboeuf (1831-1896) enjoyed a great reputation outside Belgium; Elisée Reclus (b. 1830), though a Frenchman by birth, completed his _Géographie universelle_ (1875-1894) in exile at Brussels; and Ernest Nys has written many standard works on international law. In the history of literature an important work is compiled by Ferdinand van der Haeghen and others in the _Bibliotheca Belgica_ (1880, &c.), comprising a description of all the books printed in the Netherlands in the 15th and 16th centuries. The vicomte de Spoelberch de Lovenjoul (1836-1907) was well known in France as the author of _Sainte-Beuve inconnu_ (1901), _La Genèse d'un roman de Balzac_ (1901), _Une Page perdue de H. de Balzac_ (1903), and of numerous bibliographical works. Entry: LITERATURE
The Church authorities were this time not slow to act. On the 14th of February Mgr Amette, the new archbishop of Paris, prohibited his diocesans to read or defend the two books, which "attack and deny several fundamental dogmas of Christianity," under pain of excommunication. The abbé again declared "it is impossible for me honestly and sincerely to make the act of absolute retractation and submission exacted by the sovereign pontiff." And the Holy Office, on the 7th of March, pronounced the major excommunication against him. At the end of March Loisy published _Quelques Lettres_ (December 1903-February 1908), which conclude: "At bottom I have remained in my last writings on the same line as in the earlier ones. I have aimed at establishing principally the historical position of the various questions, and secondarily the necessity for reforming more or less the traditional concepts." Entry: LOISY
Cardinal Sarto became Pope Pius X. on the 4th of August 1903. On the 1st of October Loisy published three new books, _Autour d'un petit livre_, _Le Quatrième Évangile_ and _Le Discours sur la Montagne_. _Autour_ consists of seven letters, on the origin and aim of _L'Évangile et l'Église_; on the biblical question; the criticism of the Gospels; the Divinity of Christ; the Church's foundation and authority; the origin and authority of dogma, and on the institution of the sacraments. The second and third, addressed respectively to a cardinal (Perraud) and a bishop (Le Camus), are polemical or ironical in tone; the others are all written to friends in a warm, expansive mood; the fourth letter especially, appropriated to Mgr Mignot, attains a grand elevation of thought and depth of mystical conviction. _Le Quatrième Évangile_, one thousand large pages long, is possibly over-confident in its detailed application of the allegorical method; yet it constitutes a rarely perfect sympathetic reproduction of a great mystical believer's imperishable intuitions. _Le Discours sur la Montagne_ is a fragment of a coming enlarged commentary on the synoptic Gospels. On the 23rd of December the pope ordered the publication of a decree of the Congregation of the Index, incorporating a decree of the Inquisition, condemning Loisy's _Religion d'Israël_, _L'Évangile et l'Église_, _Études évangéliques_, _Autour d'un petit livre_ and _Le Quatrième Évangile_. The pope's secretary of state had on the 19th December, in a letter to Cardinal Richard, recounted the causes of the condemnation in the identical terms used by the latter himself when condemning the _Religion d'Israël_ three years before. On the 12th of January 1904 Loisy wrote to Cardinal Merry del Val that he received the condemnation with respect, and condemned whatever might be reprehensible in his books, whilst reserving the rights of his conscience and his opinions as an historian, opinions doubtless imperfect, as no one was more ready to admit than himself, but which were the only form under which he was able to represent to himself the history of the Bible and of religion. Since the Holy See was not satisfied, Loisy sent three further declarations to Rome; the last, despatched on the 17th of March, was addressed to the pope himself, and remained unanswered. And at the end of March Loisy gave up his lectureship, as he declared, "on his own initiative, in view of the pacification of minds in the Catholic Church." In the July following he moved into a little house, built for him by his pupil and friend, the Assyriologist François Thureau Dangin, within the latter's park at Garnay, by Dreux. Here he continued his important reviews, notably in the _Revue d'histoire et de littérature religieuses_, and published _Morceaux d'exégèse_ (1906), six further sections of his synoptic commentary. In April 1907 he returned to his native Lorraine, to Ceffonds by Montier-en-Der, and to his relatives there. Entry: LOISY
For texts see Vincenzio Nussi, _Quinquaginta conventiones de rebus ecclesiasticis_ (Rome, 1869; Mainz, 1870); Branden, _Concordata inter S. Sedem et inclytam nationem Germaniae_, &c. (undated). On the nature and obligation of concordats see Mgr. Giobbio, _I Concordati_ (Monza, 1900); _idem, Lezioni di diplomazia ecclesiastica_ (Rome, 1899-1903); Cardinal Cavagnis, _Institutiones juris publici ecclesiastici_ (Rome, 1906). For the French concordats see A. Baudrillard, _Quatre cents ans de concordat_ (Paris, 1905); Boulay de la Meurthe, _Documents sur la négociation du concordat et sur les autres rapports de la France avec le Saint-Siège_ (Paris, 1891-1905); Cardinal Mathieu, _Le Concordat de 1801_ (Paris, 1903); E. Sevestre, _Le Concordat de 1801, l'histoire, le texte, la destinée_ (Paris, 1905). On the relations between the church and the state in various countries see Vering, _Kirchenrecht_, §§ 30-53. (A. Bo.*) Entry: 1886
Just before De Rossi's death, Mgr. Wilpert discovered in the Cappella Greca a painting of the "Fractio Panis" or eucharistic feast, which he cleansed from the dust with which it had been covered. The picture of the Blessed Virgin and Child, which De Rossi ascribed to the 2nd, if not to the 1st century, has received an unexpected proof of its antiquity. In 1890 the floor of the gallery in which it stands was excavated, and another floor was found to be 6 ft. below its supposed level. The _loculi_ in this lower portion were intact, with inscriptions of the 2nd century still in their places, proving that the niche in which that picture was painted must have been considerably older than the lowering of the floor. A flight of iron steps enables the visitor now to examine this venerable specimen of early Christian art. Entry: ACILIO
Little is known as to what passed in the councils of the Chinese court during the siege.[52] But there is reason to believe that throughout that period grave divergences of opinion existed amongst the highest officials. The attack upon the legations appears to have received the sanction of the dowager-empress, acting upon the advice of Prince Tuan and the extreme Manchu party, at a grand council held during the night of the 18th/19th June, upon receipt of the news of the capture of the Taku forts by the international forces. The emperor himself, as well as Prince Ching and a few other influential mandarins, strongly protested against the empress's decision, but it was acclaimed by the vast majority of those present. Three members of the Tsung-Li-Yamen were publicly executed for attempting to modify the terms of an imperial edict ordering the massacre of all foreigners throughout the provinces, and most of the Manchu nobles and high officials, and the eunuchs of the palace, who played an important part in Chinese politics throughout the dowager-empress's tenure of power, were heart and soul with the Boxers. But it was noted by the defenders of the legations that Prince Ching's troops seldom took part, or only in a half-hearted way, in the fighting, which was chiefly conducted by Tung-fu-hsiang's soldiery and the Boxer levies. The modern artillery which the Chinese possessed was only spasmodically brought into play. Nor did any of the attacking parties ever show the fearlessness and determination which the Chinese had somewhat unexpectedly displayed on several occasions during the fighting at and around Tientsin. Nevertheless, the position of the defenders at the end of the first four weeks of the siege had grown well-nigh desperate. Mining and incendiarism proved far greater dangers than shot and shell. Suddenly, just when things were looking blackest, on the 17th of July the Chinese ceased firing, and a sort of informal armistice secured a period of respite for the beleaguered Europeans. The capture of the native city of Tientsin by the allied forces had shaken the self-confidence of the Chinese authorities, who had hitherto not only countenanced, but themselves directed the hostilities.[53] Desultory fighting, nevertheless, continued, and grave fears were entertained that the approach of the relief column would prove the signal for a desperate attempt to rush the legations. The attempt was made, but failed. The relief, however, came not a day too soon. Of the small band of defenders which, including civilian volunteers, had never mustered 500, 65 had been killed and 131 wounded. Ammunition and provisions were almost at an end. Even more desperate was the situation at the Pei-tang, the Roman Catholic northern cathedral and mission house, where, with the help of a small body of French and Italian marines, Mgr Favier had organized an independent centre of resistance for his community of over 3000 souls. Their rations were absolutely exhausted when, on the 15th of August, a relief party was despatched to their assistance from the legations. Entry: 1885
The chief works on the martyrologies are those of Rosweyde, who in 1613 published at Antwerp the martyrology of Ado (also edition of Giorgi, Rome, 1745); of Sollerius, to whom we owe a learned edition of Usuard (_Acta sanctorum Junii_, vols. vi. and vii.); and of Fiorentini, who published in 1688 an annotated edition of the _Martyrology of St Jerome_. The critical edition of the latter by J. B. de Rossi and Mgr. L. Duchesne, was published in 1894, in vol. ii. of the _Acta sanctorum Novembris_. The historical martyrologies taken as a whole have been studied by Dom Quentin (1908). There are also numerous editions of calendars or martyrologies of less universal interest, and commentaries upon them. Mention ought to be made of the famous calendar of Naples, commented on by Mazocchi (Naples, 1744) and Sabbatini (Naples, 1744). Entry: MARTYROLOGY
The _Oeuvres choisies du Cardinal Maury_ (5 vols., 1827) contain what is worth preserving. Mgr Ricard has published Maury's _Correspondance diplomatique_ (2 vols., Lille, 1891). For his life and character see _Vie du Cardinal Maury_, by Louis Siffrein Maury, his nephew (1828); J. J. F. Poujoulat, _Cardinal Maury, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (1855); Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_ (vol. iv.); Mgr Ricard, _L'Abbé Maury_ (1746-1791), _L'Abbé Maury avant 1789, L'Abbé Maury et Mirabeau_ (1887); G. Bonet-Maury, _Le Cardinal Maury d'après ses mémoires et sa correspondance inédits_ (Paris, 1892); A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la constituante_ (Paris, 1882). Of the many libels written against him during the Revolution the most noteworthy are the _Petit carême de l'abbé Maury_, with a supplement called the _Seconde année_ (1790), and the _Vie privée de l'abbé Maury_ (1790), claimed by J. R. Hébert, but attributed by some writers to Restif de la Bretonne. For further bibliographical details see J. M. Quérard, _La France littéraire_, vol. v. (1833). Entry: MAURY
After the death of De Rossi, one of his pupils, H. Stevenson, since dead, discovered in 1896 a small subterranean basilica in the catacomb of Santi Pietro e Marcellino on the Via Labicana, with pious acclamations on the plaster similar to those in the Papal crypt in St Calixtus. Near the well-known subterranean chapel in the _Coemeterium Ostrianum_ was discovered by Mgr. Crostarosa, in 1877, another chapel, in which Signor Armellini found traces of St Emerentiana, foster-sister of St Agnes. Near this a whole region of galleries has been brought to light with _loculi_ intact. Entry: ACILIO
_Organic Compounds._--By heating magnesium filings with methyl and ethyl iodides A. Cahours (_Ann. chim. phys._, 1860, 58, pp. 5, 19) obtained magnesium methyl, Mg(CH3)2, and magnesium ethyl, Mg(C2H5)2, as colourless, strongly smelling, mobile liquids, which are spontaneously inflammable and are readily decomposed by water. The compounds formed by the action of magnesium on alkyl iodides in the cold have been largely used in synthetic organic chemistry since V. Grignard (_Comptes rendus_, 1900 et seq.) observed that magnesium and alkyl or aryl halides combined together in presence of anhydrous ether at ordinary temperatures (with the appearance of brisk boiling) to form compounds of the type RMgX(R = an alkyl or aryl group and X = halogen). These compounds are insoluble in ether, are non-inflammable and exceedingly reactive. A. V. Baeyer (_Ber._, 1902, 35, p. 1201) regards them as oxonium salts containing tetravalent oxygen (C2H5)2:O:(MgR) (X), whilst W. Tschelinzeff (_Ber._, 1906, 39, p. 773) considers that they contain two molecules of ether. In preparing the Grignard reagent the commencement of the reaction is accelerated by a trace of iodine. W. Tschelinzeff (_Ber._, 1904, 37, p. 4534) showed that the ether may be replaced by benzene containing a small quantity of ether or anisole, or a few drops of a tertiary amine. With unsaturated alkyl halides the products are only slightly soluble in ether, and two molecules of the alkyl compound are brought into the reaction. They are very unstable, and do not react in the normal manner. (V. Grignard and L. Tissier, _Comptes rendus_, 1901, 132, p. 558). Entry: MAGNESIUM